October 9

A New Star Changes the Heavens

1604 — A Brilliant New Star Appears in the Milky Way

Evening; precise time not established

On the evening of October 9, 1604, Italian astronomer Ilario Altobelli looked toward a striking gathering of planets in the constellation Ophiuchus. Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were close together in the sky. Altobelli had been watching the region carefully. Now something was different. There was another brilliant point of light. A new star had appeared. Today we know that Altobelli was witnessing a supernova—the catastrophic destruction of a star roughly 20,000 light-years from Earth. It became known as Kepler's Supernova, or SN 1604. It remains the most recent supernova known to have been observed occurring in our own Milky Way galaxy. Altobelli's role deserves particular attention. The supernova carries Johannes Kepler's name, which can easily create the impression that Kepler discovered it. He did not. Historical evidence indicates that Altobelli observed the new object in northern Italy on October 9. Other observers soon reported it independently. In Prague, Johannes Brunowski noticed it on October 10 and brought it to Kepler's attention. Cloudy weather prevented Kepler from seeing it himself until October 17. Once he did, however, Kepler studied the object extensively. His careful observations and subsequent publication made his name permanently associated with the event. The new star was impossible to ignore. It eventually became brighter than Jupiter and remained visible to the unaided eye for many months. At its brightest, it could even be seen during daylight. For seventeenth-century astronomy, the event presented a profound question. Where was it? The answer mattered because European natural philosophy was still heavily influenced by the cosmology of Aristotle. In the traditional Aristotelian universe, the region below the Moon was a realm of change. Things were born. Things decayed. Things moved and transformed. But beyond the Moon lay the supposedly perfect and unchanging heavens. Stars belonged to that eternal celestial realm. A genuinely new star would therefore be deeply troublesome. One possibility was that the object was not actually among the stars at all. Perhaps it was a phenomenon in Earth's atmosphere. Astronomers could test that possibility using parallax. A nearby object viewed from different locations should appear to shift relative to the distant stars. The new object showed no measurable parallax with the instruments available. That placed it far beyond the Moon. Something in the supposedly unchanging heavens had changed. This was not the first time such evidence had appeared. In 1572, Tycho Brahe had studied another brilliant “new star”—also a supernova—and similarly found no measurable parallax. The great comet of 1577 had further undermined the traditional idea that the celestial spheres were solid, immutable structures. SN 1604 added another powerful piece of evidence. The heavens were not changeless. Kepler followed the object as its brightness evolved and published his observations in 1606 in a work commonly known by its shortened title, De Stella Nova—On the New Star. The telescope had not yet entered astronomy. Galileo's telescopic observations would begin only a few years later. Everything astronomers learned about the new star in 1604 therefore came from careful naked-eye observation, positional measurement, and reasoning. They could not know what the object physically was. The nature of supernovae would remain unknown for centuries. Today astronomers identify SN 1604 as a Type Ia supernova. Such explosions involve white dwarfs—extremely dense stellar remnants—in binary systems. A thermonuclear runaway destroys the white dwarf, releasing an enormous amount of energy. The original explosion is long over. But it left something behind. An expanding shell of gas and energetic particles known as Kepler's Supernova Remnant still occupies the region. Modern observatories examine that remnant at wavelengths Altobelli and Kepler could never have imagined. Visible-light telescopes study its glowing structures. Radio telescopes examine energetic particles and magnetic fields. Infrared observatories investigate heated dust. X-ray telescopes reveal gas heated to millions of degrees by the expanding shock wave. Four centuries after the new star appeared, the explosion is still teaching us about the deaths of stars. There is also a humbling perspective hidden within the date. The supernova did not actually explode in 1604. Because it lies roughly 20,000 light-years away, the light that reached Earth that October had been traveling through the Milky Way for approximately 20,000 years. The explosion had occurred long before recorded human history. October 9, 1604, marks not when the star exploded, but when news of that explosion finally reached human eyes.

Why It Matters: SN 1604 is the most recent supernova known to have been observed occurring in the Milky Way. Its appearance provided further evidence that the heavens were not perfect and unchanging, helping undermine an ancient cosmological assumption just before telescopic astronomy transformed humanity's understanding of the universe. The surviving remnant remains an important astronomical laboratory more than four centuries later.

 

Also on This Day

1992 — The Peekskill Meteorite Hits a Parked Car

Fireball observed approximately 23:48 UTC

On the evening of October 9, 1992, spectators at high-school football games across the eastern United States noticed something extraordinary moving through the sky. A brilliant fireball streaked overhead. Unlike most meteors of its era, however, this one had an unusually large audience equipped with video cameras. The result was one of the best-recorded meteor events in history up to that time. The object entered Earth's atmosphere over the eastern United States and traveled northeastward in a long luminous trajectory. Thousands of people saw it. At least 16 independent videos recorded portions of its passage. Those recordings became scientifically valuable. Because the meteor had been photographed from multiple locations, researchers could reconstruct its atmospheric trajectory and estimate the orbit it had followed around the Sun before encountering Earth. But the most famous part of the story happened on the ground. In Peekskill, New York, 18-year-old Michelle Knapp heard a loud crash outside her home. A rock from space had struck her parked 1980 Chevrolet Malibu. The meteorite punched through the rear of the car, leaving a large dent and a hole, before coming to rest beneath it. The recovered stone weighed approximately 12.4 kilograms—more than 27 pounds. It was identified as an H6 ordinary chondrite, part of one of the most common broad classes of stony meteorites. The car quickly became almost as famous as the meteorite. But scientifically, the videos were more important. Meteorites are pieces of asteroids that survive atmospheric passage and reach the ground. Usually, scientists can analyze the recovered stone but have limited information about precisely how that particular object traveled through the solar system before falling. Peekskill provided both. The videos documented the atmospheric trajectory. The meteorite provided the physical sample. Researchers could therefore connect a laboratory specimen with information about the orbit of its parent meteoroid before it encountered Earth. The event anticipated a connection we encountered only two days ago with 2008 TC3. In 1992, cameras recorded a meteorite-producing object primarily as it traveled through Earth's atmosphere. In 2008, astronomers detected 2008 TC3 before it entered the atmosphere and predicted its impact. Together, such events show how asteroid astronomy, meteor science, orbital mechanics, and laboratory analysis increasingly became parts of the same field.

Why It Matters: The Peekskill meteorite became one of the best-documented meteorite falls of its time because its brilliant atmospheric passage was recorded on numerous independent videos and a substantial fragment was recovered. Those observations allowed scientists to connect a meteorite studied in the laboratory with the trajectory of the object that delivered it to Earth.

2009 — LCROSS Strikes the Moon and Finds Water

Centaur impact: 11:31:19.51 UTC
LCROSS impact: 11:35:34 UTC

On October 9, 2009, NASA deliberately crashed a rocket into the Moon. Four minutes later, it crashed a spacecraft nearby. This was not a failure. It was the experiment. The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite—LCROSS—had been launched with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter on June 18, 2009. Its principal question was one of enormous importance for lunar science and future exploration: Is there water ice in the permanently shadowed craters near the Moon's poles? For most of the twentieth century, the Moon was widely imagined as almost completely dry. But spacecraft observations had gradually complicated that picture. Radar and neutron measurements provided evidence suggesting that hydrogen-rich material—and possibly water ice—might exist near the lunar poles. There was a reason to look there. Because the Moon's rotational axis is only slightly tilted, sunlight never reaches the floors of some deep craters near the poles. These permanently shadowed regions can remain extraordinarily cold. For billions of years, they may have acted as cold traps, preserving volatile substances delivered by comets and asteroids or produced through other processes. LCROSS was designed to look inside one. The target was Cabeus crater, near the lunar south pole. The mission used an ingenious approach. The spent Centaur upper stage that had helped launch LCROSS was retained as an impactor. At 11:31:19.51 UTC, the roughly two-ton Centaur slammed into the permanently shadowed floor of Cabeus. The impact excavated hundreds of tons of lunar material and threw part of it upward. Material that may have remained in darkness for billions of years suddenly rose into sunlight. LCROSS followed approximately four minutes behind. Its cameras and spectrometers watched the impact and examined the resulting plume. Then the spacecraft flew directly through the debris. It transmitted its measurements to Earth until, at 11:35:34 UTC, LCROSS itself struck the Moon. The mission was over. The analysis was just beginning. The visible plume proved less dramatic than many observers had expected. But LCROSS's instruments had obtained the measurements that mattered. On November 13, NASA announced the result: water had been detected. Subsequent analysis strengthened and expanded the conclusion. The excavated material contained water and other volatile substances. Later measurements indicated that some lunar polar deposits contained grains of relatively pure water ice. The Moon was not simply the bone-dry world once imagined. Its permanently shadowed regions preserved a chemically rich record. The discovery had implications extending beyond lunar geology. Water is useful. Future explorers could potentially use lunar ice for drinking water. Water can be separated into hydrogen and oxygen, potentially providing breathable oxygen and ingredients for rocket propellant. Whether particular deposits can practically and responsibly be used remains a question for future exploration. But the presence of accessible lunar water fundamentally changes discussions about sustained activity on the Moon.

Why It Matters: LCROSS provided direct evidence of water in a permanently shadowed crater near the Moon's south pole. The discovery transformed scientific understanding of lunar volatiles and helped establish the polar regions as some of the most important locations for future lunar science and exploration.

 

The Bigger Picture

October 9 is a day about things that were present before we understood they were there. SN 1604 suddenly appeared in the night sky. But the star had actually exploded thousands of years earlier. The light simply had not reached Earth yet. The Peekskill meteoroid traveled through the solar system before intersecting Earth's orbit. Human beings became aware of it only when the atmosphere turned its arrival into a brilliant streak of light. Water had probably existed in the permanently shadowed regions of the Moon for immense spans of time before LCROSS excavated some of it into sunlight. In every case, discovery did not create the phenomenon. Discovery changed our awareness of it. That distinction lies at the heart of astronomy. The universe does not reveal itself according to the timetable of human understanding. Stars explode whether anyone is watching. Asteroids cross planetary orbits whether anyone has discovered them. Ice accumulates in darkness whether anyone has sent a spacecraft to look. Science gives us ways to notice what was already there. There is another progression across the three events. In 1604, astronomers possessed their eyes and geometry. In 1992, video cameras captured a meteor from many different locations, allowing computers and mathematics to reconstruct its path. In 2009, scientists did something more active. They deliberately performed an experiment on another world. LCROSS did not merely observe the Moon. It struck the surface in a carefully selected location so that buried material would be exposed and measured. Astronomy had evolved from observing what the universe presented to us into designing experiments on worlds beyond Earth. And yet the basic motivation remained the same. There was something we did not know. So we found a way to look.

At a Glance

1604 — Evening; precise time not established — Ilario Altobelli makes the earliest known reported observation of the brilliant new star now called SN 1604 or Kepler's Supernova, the most recent supernova known to have been observed occurring in the Milky Way.

1992 — Approximately 23:48 UTC — The Peekskill fireball crosses the eastern United States; a 12.4-kilogram meteorite fragment subsequently strikes a parked automobile in Peekskill, New York.

2009 — 11:31:19.51 UTC — LCROSS's Centaur upper stage impacts Cabeus crater near the Moon's south pole, excavating material from a permanently shadowed region.

2009 — 11:35:34 UTC — The LCROSS shepherding spacecraft, after observing and passing through the Centaur's debris plume, impacts the Moon; its measurements subsequently confirm the presence of lunar water.